• Available as a food in over 70 countries.
• World spirulina production 1975-1999.
• Food safety research.
• Nucleic acid safety research.
• Heavy metal safety research.
• Algal toxin safety research.
• Spirulina food safety guidelines used by US and Japan growers.
• Quality and safety standards for the USA natural foods industry.

Spirulina has been marketed and consumed as a human food and has been approved as a food for human consumption by many governments, health agencies and associations of over 70 countries:

Spirulina has a history of use in Chad where locals traditionally consume 9-13 grams per meal, and these meals are from 10 to 60% of the meals.1 "The attention of the U.N. FAO was attracted by the fact that algae was being consumed by humans. The FAO organized an educational campaign in Chad to encourage consumption of spirulina harvested from natural sources. More than 6000 meals were distributed under the supervision of the FAO and the campaign was crowned as a success. The program was suspended due to the outbreak of war."2

Another report stated "dihé (spirulina sauce) was served at the school canteen. One must admit the introduction of this product in the young people's food gave no problem in this region where the majority were Kanembou. But equally at Fort Lamy (now Ndjemena) we noted the product was accepted by other people."3

As previously reported in Chapters 4 and 8, spirulina was given to malnourished children and adults in clinical studies beginning in the early 1970s. Since the late 1970s, millions of people in the developed countries have used it as a health food supplement, taking 3 to 20 grams a day. Rarely are there any reports of allergies or sensitivities.

In the 1970s, spirulina underwent extensive safety studies with animals and fish. Independent feeding tests in France, Mexico and Japan showed no undesirable results and no toxic side effects on humans, rats, pigs, chickens, fish and oysters. Many independent rat feeding trials were conducted in Japan and no negative effects at all were found for acute or chronic toxicity or reproduction.4,5

In 1980, one of the most important and comprehensive animal studies was sponsored by the U.N. Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) on rats and mice. Spirulina comprised 10% to 35% of the total diet. No second or third generation reproduction, fertility, lactation or birth defect problems were found. No cancer causing properties were found. No problems with heavy metals, nucleic acids, pesticides or bacteria were found. The study concluded any further research would demonstrate its complete safety as a human food.6

Toxicology research has continued through the 1980s and 1990s, showing spirulina has no peri- and postnatal toxicity in rats, no adverse effects on reproduction, including male and female fertility, and duration of gestation, and no increase in number of abnormal offspring.7,8,9

1. Delpeuch, F. et. al. Consumption as food and nutritional composition of blue-green algae among populations in the Kanem region of Chad. Ann. Nutr. Aliment. 29, 497-516. 1976.
2. Institut Francais du Petrol. Rapport ou Comite Consultatif des Proteines OAA/ OMS/ FISE- Etat d'Avancement du Procede IFP de Production d'algues Dec 1970, p. 11.
3. Fadoul, L. Les algues bleues du Kanem. Rapport de mission par L. Fadoul, A. Avrem et G. Le Guedes (experts de la division de la nutrition, FAO) Juin 1971.
4. Takemoto, K. Subacute toxicity study with rats. Saitama Medical College, Japan, 1982.
5. Atatsuka, K. Acute toxicity and general pharmacological studies. Meiji College of Pharmacy, Japan,1979.
6. Chamorro-Cevallos, G. Toxicological research on spirulina. UNIDO, 24 Oct. 1980, UF/MEX/78/048. (French)
7. Becker, W. E., Vanattaraman, L.V. et al. Production and utilization of the blue-green algae Spirulina in India. Biomass, 4, 105-125, 1984.
8. Chamorro, G. et al. Subchronic toxicity study in rats fed Spirulina. J. de Pharm. de Belgique 43, 29-36, 1988.
9. Salazar, M., Chamorro, G. et al. Effect of spirulina consumption on reproduction and peri- and postnal development in rats. Food and Chemical Toxicity 34, 353-359. 1996.

Spirulina has about 4% nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), lower than chlorella and other microalgae, yeast and fungi (6-11%). Although there was once some concern that eating microalgae might increase uric acid levels because of the nucleic acids, there is little evidence to support this. In fact, one study found that uric acid levels did not increase in humans taking up to 30 grams a day of chlorella protein (50 grams of chlorella).10 Since spirulina is lower in nucleic acid content, eating up to 50 grams a day is safe as well, and means it can be safely used as major protein source.11

Published studies from independent laboratories around the world confirm the absence of any toxic effects even when it provides a significant amount of dietary protein.12,13,14 Since its introduction as a human food in 1979, its success has confirmed the work of the earlier animal studies. Spirulina has been safely consumed by millions of people in North and South America, Asia, Europe and Africa.

10. Waslein, C. et al. Uric acid levels in men fed algae and yeast as protein. J. Food. Sci. 1970, 35, 294-8.
11. Jassby, Alan. Spirulina: a model for microalgae as human food. Algae and Human Affairs, Cambridge Univ Press, 1988, p. 159.
12. Boudene, C. et al. Evaluation of long term toxicity on rats with spirulina. Ann Nutr. Aliment.,1976,30:577-588.
13. Til, H.P, and Williams, M. Sub-chronic toxicity study with dried algae in rats. Cent. Inst. for Nutrition and Food Research, Zeist, Ned., 1971.
14, Fevrier, C. and Seve, B. Incorporation of spirulina into pig diets. Ann.Nur.Aliment.,1976,29:625-30 (French).


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Mercury, lead, cadmium and arsenic are widespread in our environment from ever-present industrial pollution. Heavy metals are toxic to humans in small amounts, and prolonged eating of foods contaminated with heavy metals can lead to long term health problems. Yet few companies or organizations disclose levels of these heavy metals in foods. One grower, Earthrise Farms, has published strict standards for heavy metals in spirulina.15 A five year testing program in California showed heavy metals were either not detectable or extremely low. Based on 120 independent laboratory tests, Earthrise Farms set up some of the toughest standards for heavy metals.

Mercury was not detectable in 40 tests, and the standard for mercury was set at less than 0.05 parts per million (ppm). In comparison, the US FDA standard in 'aquatic animals' is 1.0 ppm, permitting over 20 times more mercury. Standards were set for cadmium (less than 0.05 ppm), lead (less than 1.0 ppm), and arsenic (less than 1.0 ppm). By comparison, the UN Protein Advisory Group standard for single cell protein permits higher heavy metals: 1.0 ppm for mercury; 1.0 ppm for cadmium, 5.0 ppm for lead; and 2.0 ppm for arsenic.

15. Earthrise Farms. Five year testing of heavy metals in spirulina, 1983-1987. 1988.

An important quality control issue surrounding production of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) is the possibility of inadvertantly harvesting other blue-green algae containing cyanotoxins. This is a risk when harvesting algae from natural bodies of water with mixed cultures of microscopic algae. Algal toxins are capable of causing widespread poisoning of animals and humans.16

In 1995-96, a group of leading microalgae producers sponsored research conducted by algal toxicologists. The result was a Technical Booklet for the Microalgae Biomass Industry as a guide to the use of a very sensitive enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) and a protein phosphate inhibition assay (PPIA) for the detection of toxic microcystins and nodularins. These methods can detect, monitor and control cyanotoxins, so producers can assure a safe, nutritious product for human and animal food supplements.17

16. Carmichael, W.W. The toxins of Cyanobacteria. Sci. American, Jan. 1994, p. 78-86.
17. An, J., and Carmichael, W.W. Technical Booklet for the Microalgae Biomass Industry: Detection of microcystins and nodularins using an enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) and a protein phosphate inhibition assay (PPIA). Dept. Bio. Sci. Wayne State Univ, Dayton OH. July 1996.

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Next> Appendix B: The Origins of Earthrise

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© 2000 Robert Henrikson, Ronore Enterprises, Inc.